The Biology, Ecology, Distribution and Future Management Challenges of the Invasive Species Pontederia crassipes (Water Hyacinth): A Global Review

ABSTRACT Pontederia (= Eichhornia ) crassipes Mart (water hyacinth) is an aquatic, free‐floating, perennial plant that has been described as one of the most destructive and invasive species in the world. Whilst it is native to South America, P. crassipes can now be found in all habitable continents, which has been a result of its aggressive and rapid growth pattern, assisted by the global ornamental pond plant trade. Of particular concern, is that the spread of P. crassipes is projected to increase as a result of anthropogenic factors, climate change and inappropriate or unsuccessful management interventions. To assist in this area, this review explores the biology and ecology of P. crassipes with an aim of identifying the current most suitable methods of control, whilst also highlighting key areas of research that can help facilitate future management of the species. To combat its invasive habit, a range of control options have been tried, including biological, chemical and mechanical strategies, but many of these options have shown varying levels of effectiveness, particularly when used in isolation. In addition, the successful management of P. crassipes is largely determined by specific enabling conditions, such as (i) climatic and environmental elements, (ii) cooperation of relevant authorities and local communities, (iii) infrastructure and resource availability, (iv) national and local regulations and (v) the availability of skills and knowledge. As a result, managing P. crassipes requires an integrated approach and appropriate phytosanitary measures to prevent its spread and introduction to new areas, which is further discussed within this review.