A viroid-like RNA can be transmitted among different Trichoderma species affecting their antagonistic capacity

ABSTRACT Viroids are small, circular non-coding RNAs that autonomously replicate in plants, exploiting host cellular machinery for replication and spread. Recent studies reveal that viroid-like agents can infect filamentous fungi, suggesting cross-kingdom interactions. In this study, we report the discovery and the characterization of TsvlRNA1 in Trichoderma spirale . TsvlRNA1 is a 712-nt-long viroid-like RNA containing a hammerhead ribozyme in one polarity strand. Bioinformatic data, molecular validation, and reverse genetics experiments demonstrate that TsvlRNA1 is circular with an active ribozyme essential for replication. TsvlRNA1 replicates autonomously and transmits between Trichoderma species, eliciting 20–22 nt viroid-derived small RNAs consistent with RNA silencing targeting. The biocontrol capacity of Trichoderma against Rhizoctonia solani is variably modulated by TsvlRNA1, with effects ranging from positive to negative depending on host strain. In T. spirale , data suggest that TsvlRNA1 negatively affects antagonistic potential. TsvlRNA1 transmission via horizontal routes is prevalent, and the viroid-like RNA fails to infect plant hosts experimentally. These results highlight the as-yet underappreciated ecological and functional diversity of viroid-like agents in fungi, with implications for fungal biology, biocontrol, and genotype-phenotype relationships in eukaryotes. IMPORTANCE Species of the fungal genus Trichoderma play a central role in sustainable agriculture by controlling fungal plant pathogens and supporting plant growth. For this reason, Trichoderma -based products represent a substantial share of the global market for microbial biofungicides. Viroids are the smallest known infectious agents, and their presence in filamentous fungi has only recently been discovered. Consequently, little is known about their biology, transmission, or interactions with fungal hosts. In this study, we describe TsvlRNA1, a viroid-like RNA associated with T. spirale , representing only the second viroid-like RNA to be biologically characterized in fungi. We show that TsvlRNA1 can influence the ability of Trichoderma to inhibit Rhizoctonia solani , a major plant pathogen, demonstrating its biological relevance. Unexpectedly, TsvlRNA1 can be transmitted between different Trichoderma species. This finding raises concerns about the possible transfer of genetic traits between fungi, including potentially those related to fungicide resistance, with important implications for agricultural biocontrol.