Climate change and the pesticide treadmill: rethinking pest management for a resilient future

Global climate change (GCC), characterized mainly by rising temperatures and elevated carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) levels, is reshaping the delicate balance of what this review refers to as the “3 Ps”: plant–pest–pesticide interactions. Climate extremes weaken plant growth and modify defense chemistry, often increasing vulnerability to herbivores, while simultaneously shifting pest distribution, fitness, and resistance potential, particularly in regions where warming expands the overwintering range of major pests. Pesticides, the cornerstone of modern agriculture, often exhibit climate-sensitivity. Temperature, CO 2 , and daily thermal fluctuations can significantly modulate the rates of absorption, metabolism, and degradation. These interactions rarely act in isolation. Instead, they create complex feedback loops that amplify both pest pressure and pesticide reliance, trapping agriculture in a “pesticide treadmill” amid a changing climate. Insects further complicate this cycle by adjusting their susceptibility through temperature-mediated modulation of detoxification enzymes and stress-response pathways. Elevated CO 2 and temperature further reshape soil–pesticide interactions, variably accelerating degradation or diminishing efficacy. Recognizing these complex and interconnected dynamics is essential for rethinking pest management. This review synthesizes current knowledge on how GCC reshapes the three Ps relationship, and advocates for a paradigm shift toward climate-smart, resilient pest management systems that secure agricultural productivity while reducing ecological risks.