China Engages the Arab World: A Decade of the 1+2+3 Cooperation Pattern

This article examines China’s evolving role in the Arab world through the lens of the 1[Formula: see text]2[Formula: see text]3 cooperation pattern, announced by Xi Jinping in 2014 and later incorporated into China’s Arab Policy Paper. Situating the cooperation pattern within the post-BRI expansion of Chinese global ambitions, the article advances our understanding of Chinese economic statecraft in the BRI era. It analyzes energy as the “core,” infrastructure, trade and investment as the “two wings,” and nuclear, space and renewable energy as the “three breakthroughs.” Drawing on sectoral and country-level evidence, this article shows how 1[Formula: see text]2[Formula: see text]3 consolidates existing patterns of engagement, reveals the depth and unevenness of China’s regional presence, and highlights implications for future China-Arab cooperation.