The Asymmetric and Nonlinear Effects of Multi-Dimensional Distance on International Tourism Demand

Prior tourism demand research has predominantly examined the magnitude of distance effects while neglecting their directional effects. This study investigates how multi-dimensional cross-national distance affects bilateral tourism flows differently depending on flow direction. Drawing on Social Comparison Theory and the Approach-Inhibition Theory of Power, we operationalized flow directionality based on markets’ relative status, distinguishing “high-to-low” flows (from higher- to lower-status markets) from “low-to-high” flows. Using a panel gravity model with global data, we found that distance dimensions significantly and distinctly impacted tourism flows, and these effects varied systematically by flow direction (i.e., asymmetric effects). The directional asymmetries were contingent upon the status disparity between origin and destination markets, exhibiting a threshold pattern (i.e., nonlinear effects). By combining psychosocial theories with econometric analysis, this study proposes a novel framework for explaining directional distance effects in international tourism demand and provides practical implications for destination marketing and policy to mitigate flow imbalances.