Can Virtual Reality Promote Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Learning? A Synthesis of Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analytic Evidence

This umbrella review provides a thorough synthesis of evidence on the impact of virtual reality on three domains of learning (cognitive, affective, and psychomotor), informed by Bloom’s Taxonomy. Content analysis was applied to 93 articles comprising 70 systematic reviews, 17 systematic reviews and meta-analyses, and 6 meta-analyses, extracted from three databases (i.e., Web of Science, Scopus, and IEEE Xplore). The results indicated that affective learning in VR was most widely reported, followed by cognitive and psychomotor domains of learning. In the cognitive domain, VR showed more consistent benefits, especially for knowledge acquisition and higher-order cognitive skills (e.g., problem-solving, intellectual skills), although a few meta-analyses reported non-significant effects. Across the affective domain, findings were mixed but generally suggested VR could improve self-efficacy, self-confidence, and satisfaction, while evidence for various affective outcomes remained highly inconsistent. For the psychomotor domain, VR often enhanced motor, procedural, and safety-related skills, but results specifically for complex clinical skills were inconclusive. Future research should advance theory through exploring why and how VR influences learning while strengthening research designs and standardized measurements to determine under what conditions VR produces reliable improvements.