Design and implementation of an ultrasonic sensor-based automated braking system for manual transmission vehicles: A case study of the Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ79

Road traffic accidents remain a major public safety and economic concern, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where aging vehicle fleets and limited access to advanced driver-assistance systems exacerbate the risk. This study presents a low-cost, retrofittable automated braking system designed to enhance safety in older manual-transmission vehicles without relying on ABS or ESC. The system combines ultrasonic sensors, an Arduino-based control unit, and a solenoid actuator to automatically apply brakes, effectively eliminating human reaction delays and improving collision mitigation under dusty or low-visibility conditions. The proposed approach targets vehicles such as the Toyota Land Cruiser HZJ79, commonly used in Ethiopia’s military and commercial sectors. Analytical modeling, CAD-based design (SolidWorks), and hardware simulations (Proteus) were employed to evaluate actuator force, braking time, and stopping distance. Results indicate consistent reductions in stopping distance, achieving up to 85% improvement at low speeds and an average reduction of 14% across all tested conditions. Comparative analysis with existing low-cost automated braking systems demonstrates superior performance under realistic constraints. The primary contribution of this work is twofold: it extends the service life and safety of existing vehicles in resource-limited settings, and it provides a scalable, practical solution that reduces accident-related social and economic burdens without requiring fleet replacement. A cost-benefit assessment further confirms the system’s feasibility and potential impact. Overall, this study demonstrates that intelligent braking technologies can be effectively integrated into older vehicles, bridging a critical gap in road safety and offering a sustainable approach to reducing traffic-related injuries and fatalities in low- and middle-income countries.