Principal leadership, school processes, and student achievement: Examining contextual heterogeneity in leadership mechanisms via multigroup multilevel structural equation modeling

This study aims to: (a) examine the direct and indirect relationships between principal leadership and student achievement through school processes in Hong Kong and Macau, and (b) investigate how school contexts as conditions for leadership mechanisms linking principal leadership to student achievement. Using a novel approach—multigroup multilevel structural equation modeling—and drawing on PISA 2022 data, we find that school context not only influences leadership and student outcomes but also moderates both the magnitude and the mechanism through which leadership exerts its influences along different pathways. This study advances the understanding of leadership effectiveness by tackling the questions of “under what conditions does leadership matter most?” and “in what ways can leadership practices be responsive to various school contexts?” The findings suggest that school leaders need to collaborate with teachers and staff to situate core leadership practices into their school’s condition and culture. Leader preparation programs should focus not only on fostering leaders’ commitment to core values and educational improvement, but also on developing their sensitivity to students’ needs and adaptability in complex situations and on providing them with resources that may inform their own judgement and inventiveness in their interactions with teachers and local contexts.