Environmental stress, water inequality, and environmental justice in Palestinian urban areas: a GIS-based assessment of sanitation and infrastructure disparities in the southern West Bank

This study examines environmental justice disparities in the southern West Bank by assessing groundwater quality, wastewater management, and water supply infrastructure in Dura City, Fawwar Refugee Camp, and the Israeli settlement of Nahal Negohot. A mixed-methods approach combined field-based water sampling (71 points) with socio-demographic data (2014–2024) and GIS-based spatial analyses to generate composite indices, including the Environmental Stress Index (ESI) and Pollution Risk Index (PRI).Results indicate pronounced spatial inequities. Nitrate (NO₃⁻) concentrations in Dura City ranged from near zero to extreme peaks of 1,667.5 mg/L, exceeding WHO standards by up to 34 times, while Fawwar Camp exhibited moderate exceedances (51.5–147.1 mg/L). Nahal Negohot maintained low nitrate levels (