Human health risk assessment of heavy metals in water and soil irrigated by the textile waste contaminated Dravyavati River based on USEPA guidelines

This comprehensive study investigates heavy metal concentration in water and soil during the dry summer season across the villages adjacent to the Dravyavati River, Jaipur, India. The detailed analysis of water and soil samples from Sukhdevpura, Mohanpura, Badh Shyopur, Bas Beelwa and Ashawala revealed elevated levels of certain heavy metals by Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) analysis with three replicate measurements ( n = 3), per sample following USEPA. Soil revealed high lead (27.30–41.95 mg Kg − 1 ), Zinc (38.60–83.0 mg Kg − 1 ; highest Sukhdevpura) and Nickel (18.65–72.65 mg Kg − 1 ; highest Sukhdevpura) while water showed lead hotspots (0.15 mg L − 1 , Sukhdevpura) and Ni (0.34 mg L − 1 ), exceeding (WHO, 2006) limits. Pollution indices indicated moderate-severe contamination (geoaccumulation index, I geo lead 3.32 water; Pollution load index > 1 soils). USEPA- based human health risk assessment revealed elevated non- carcinogenic risk (HI > 1), primarily driven Pb and Ni exposure through irrigation water and soil. Carcinogenic risk for As exceeded the acceptable threshold (CR > 10 − 4 ), highlighting potential long- term health concerns for the exposed population. Multivariate analyses identified textile-effluent lead and zinc as a dominant anthropogenic factor. Soil analysis highlighted Mohanpura as a lead-zinc outlier, while water analysis pointed Sukhdevpura copper-zinc-arsenic hotspot. Cluster analysis formed distinct site grouping, showing moderate pollution sites and high-risk soil requiring immediate remediations. Elevated Pb and Ni pose public health threats including child neurodevelopmental delays, renal dysfunction urging effluent controls, farmer, public awareness and bioremediation.