Smart biomaterials for cardiovascular, bone, and skin tissue engineering: mechanisms, applications, and future prospects

Smart biomaterials are engineered to dynamically respond to external stimuli, such as pH, temperature, light, and magnetic fields, enabling on-demand modifications in their physicochemical properties. The limited regenerative capacity of tissues and organs has driven the development of advanced materials that can actively guide cell behavior and promote healing. This review summarizes recent advances in both natural and synthetic stimuli-responsive biomaterials, emphasizing their mechanisms of responsiveness and classification, including shape-memory polymers, smart metals, nanocomposites, and multifunctional nanoagents. Applications in bone, skin, and cardiovascular tissue engineering are critically discussed, highlighting their potential to enhance osteogenesis, wound healing, and myocardial repair. Furthermore, current challenges and future directions are presented, outlining strategies to improve biocompatibility, mechanical properties, and clinical translation. By bridging fundamental mechanisms and biomedical applications, stimuli-responsive biomaterials offer transformative opportunities to revolutionize regenerative medicine and personalized therapy.