How does provincial virtual cropland mobility influence ecological compensation in China?

Abstract Background Compensation for cropland is a main component of ecological compensation programs in China. Ecological compensation for cropland not only effectively addresses the effects of cropland use but also serves as a vital instrument for coordinating regional development. However, existing researches have not quantitatively analyzed virtual cross-regional cropland flows or systematically assessed the ecological compensation programs. Results The virtual interprovincial and inter-regional patterns of cropland flow and the effects of ecological compensation in Chain were analyzed, and a framework was developed for providing ecological compensation for cropland. The provinces with the largest cropland areas were located in the Yunnan, Hebei, Sichuan, Jilin, Shandong, Henan, and Heilongjiang regions. Virtual cropland showed a pattern of being transferred from north to south, with Guangdong being the largest net importer (40,334.03 km 2 ). The largest virtual cropland amounts were exported from northeast China, particularly Heilongjiang (72,762.20 km 2 ). Developed regions, such as Beijing and Shanghai, strongly depended on external cropland resources, primarily from Jilin, Hebei, and Henan. The regional disparities in the ecological compensation associated with virtual cropland flows were large; eastern and northeastern China were the most affected by changes in compensation amounts. Conclusions The findings contribute to the sustainable use of cropland and to coordinated development in China. Recommendations for improving ecological compensation policies are provided.