Veterinary drug residues in animal-derived foods: linking pharmacokinetics, processing transformations, and detection to global food safety governance

Veterinary drug residues in animal-derived foods, including antimicrobials, anthelmintics, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and hormonal agents, pose significant risks to food safety, human health, and antimicrobial resistance mitigation. Persistent contamination arises from interspecies pharmacokinetic variability, non-compliance with withdrawal periods, and inadequate analytical infrastructure, particularly in low- and middle-income countries. Established detection platforms such as liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays remain the foundation of regulatory monitoring, while emerging tools including CRISPR-Cas biosensors, nanomaterial-based electrochemical assays, and artificial intelligence assisted spectroscopic systems show promise but remain largely at the proof-of-concept or research stage and are not yet routinely applicable in regulatory enforcement. Thermal treatments, fermentation, and storage can modify drug stability, generate degradation products, and alter toxicological profiles, yet these transformations are rarely incorporated into surveillance strategies or Maximum Residue Limit determinations. This review synthesizes evidence across pharmacokinetic determinants, processing-induced residue transformations, analytical innovation, and international regulatory frameworks within a One Health and food safety risk assessment perspective. It argues that integrating processing-adjusted exposure data, harmonizing Maximum Residue Limit policies across jurisdictions, and strengthening analytical capacity in resource-limited settings are essential for equitable food safety governance and sustainable animal production systems.