Colletotrichum: a versatile fungal genus with diverse infection strategies, host interactions, and management challenges

Abstract Colletotrichum is a destructive fungal genus and a major cause of anthracnose disease in food crops, posing a serious threat to global food security. Various species of this genus affect different plant tissues, with infections during fruit ripening and post-harvest stages being particularly prevalent and economically damaging. Recent studies have identified newly emerging Colletotrichum species associated with anthracnose, many of which exhibit broad host ranges, while others remain host-specific. Although chemical control has been the primary management strategy for decades, the increasing resistance to fungicides among Colletotrichum populations has compromised its efficacy. This growing resistance highlights the urgent need for sustainable alternatives. Understanding host resistance mechanisms and the infection strategies of Colletotrichum , including induced defense responses, is essential for developing effective and sustainable field management practices. Moreover, pathogenic fungi threaten plant health by overcoming host immunity; plants have evolved complex defense systems in response. Certain fungi establish mutualistic associations with plants, enhancing nutrient uptake, growth, and resilience to environmental stresses such as drought, salinity, and pathogens. Integrated disease management strategies involving biocontrol agents such as Trichoderma harzianum and Bacillus subtilis , natural antimicrobial compounds like thymol and eugenol, and resistant cultivars of crops offer sustainable alternatives for managing Colletotrichum infections while reducing environmental impact and mitigating fungicide resistance. This review systematically examines the infection strategies, molecular mechanisms, and ecological and host interactions of Colletotrichum species, synthesizing recent advances in sustainable management, including biocontrol, natural antimicrobials, and resistant cultivars, to guide future research and disease control.