From hive to pond: exploring propolis as a natural immunostimulant and antimicrobial in aquaculture

Propolis is a sticky, resinous substance produced by bees from plant buds, exudates, and pollen, mixed with salivary secretions containing enzymes such as Beta-glucosidase that hydrolyse flavonoid glycosides into active aglycones. Its composition varies in color and texture depending on botanical origin. Propolis exhibits diverse bioactivities, including antiseptic, antimicrobial, antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. Traditionally used by bees for nest construction and protection, it has gained significant attention in human applications, including cosmetics, oral health, and dermatology. Moreover, propolis serves as an immunostimulant, functional food additive, and antimicrobial agent with promising therapeutic potential in aquaculture. This review discusses the multifaceted biological activities and potential applications of this compound across human health and aquaculture.