Toxicity Assessment of Nanomaterials Using Organs-on-Chips and 3D Cell Culture Systems

Nanomaterials have been widely applied in various fields of technology due to their high adaptable properties. However, they have been found to interfere with several biological mechanisms, leading to harmful effects when exposed beyond safe physiological thresholds. This emphasizes the urgent requirement for improved techniques to measure nanotoxicity. Conventional methods, such as spectrophotometric assays, are limited in their ability to analyze individual cell behavior without environmental interference, often time-consuming, and can lead to false positive results. Two-dimensional monoculture systems lack the structural and interactive complexity of real tissue, despite their advantages, which include excellent repeatability and low cost. In contrast, 3D models such as spheroids and organoids are more suitable for assessing the impacts of nanomaterials since they closely mimic in vivo tissue conditions. Advances in microfabrication technology have made it possible to develop organ-on-a-chip platforms, which are miniature systems that replicate the anatomical and functional characteristics of human organs. These models are becoming increasingly effective in nanotoxicological research providing more dynamic and realistic platform for examining tissue responses. This chapter discusses the toxic effects of nanomaterials on human health and their impacts on various biological mechanisms, while also highlighting emerging organoid and organ-on-a-chip models for evaluating nanomaterial-induced toxicity.