Ecological and physiological risks of micro- and nanoplastics in rice agroecosystems: Challenges and engineering-based mitigation approaches

Micro-and nanoplastics (MNPs) are emerging pollutants that threaten terrestrial agroecosystems, including rice (Oryza sativa L.), a key global staple crop.This review synthesizes recent findings on morphological, physiological, and molecular responses of rice to MNPs, and highlights ecological risks to soil fertility and food security.MNPs disrupt root development, reduce biomass accumulation, impair photosynthesis, and alter hormonal and molecular signaling, leading to yield losses under combined stress conditions.At the soil level, MNPs alter microbial communities, reduce nutrient cycling efficiency, and increase heavy metal bioavailability.Despite extensive laboratory studies, real-field evidence remains scarce, and mitigation strategies are underexplored.This paper proposes ecological engineering solutions, including organic amendments, microbial bioremediation, phytoremediation, and climate-smart soil management practices to reduce MNPs accumulation.We emphasize the need for standardized testing protocols, long-term field trials, and multi-omics integration to assess ecological risks.By linking plant physiological responses with engineering-based solutions, this review provides a framework for sustainable management of MNPs contamination in agricultural systems.