Profiling of volatile organic compounds in herbal extracts: A review on recent advances

Abstract Medicinal herbs have long been an integral part of traditional healthcare systems and are increasingly gaining global recognition for their therapeutic value. This review explores the chemical complexity of herbal plants, with a particular emphasis on their volatile organic compounds (VOCs) content, which contribute significantly to their pharmacological and industrial relevance. It delves into the therapeutic roles and ethnopharmacological significance of herbal VOCs, while also examining their economic impact. This review provides a critical overview of the chemical diversity, biosynthetic pathways, and functional roles of VOCs. The review further outlines the chromatographic techniques for chemical profiling and fingerprinting, essential for quality control, standardization, and regulatory compliance of herbal products that led to the plants-based drug discovery. A detailed overview of sample preparation and extraction methods, including emerging green and nano-enabled technologies is provided. Analytical chromatographic techniques and sensor-based methods, are discussed alongside advances in miniaturized systems. The application of statistical, chemometric, and machine learning tools for data interpretation is reviewed, emphasizing their role in enhancing the relevance of volatile profiling. The review identifies a growing trend toward integrative approaches that combine advanced analytical methods with robust statistical tools to ensure reproducibility, standardization, and regulatory compliance of herbal products. Notably, significant challenges remain, including variability in VOC composition due to geographical, genetic, and processing factors. We propose that future research should focus on data fusion strategies, AI-driven metabolomics, and precision phytomedicine to translate volatile profiling into clinically relevant outcomes. This review thus provides a comprehensive synthesis that bridges traditional phytochemistry with cutting-edge analytical science, setting the foundation for sustainable innovation in herbal therapeutics.