Tissue engineering tubular scaffold fabrication for esophageal regeneration

The esophagus is a tubular organ essential for maintaining normal eating function in humans. However, the replacement of the esophagus remains challenging in clinical settings. Although tissue engineering scaffolds are a promising alternative solution, their fabrication is difficult due to the complex structure and function of the esophagus. This review describes the existing fabrication methods for esophageal tubular scaffolds, including decellularization, casting, electrospinning, three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting, and pin-frogging. Also discussed are the stimulation cues of the fabricated esophageal tubular scaffold that induce esophageal muscle and epithelial cells. Finally, this review emphasizes three important concerns for esophageal tubular scaffolds: leakage and porosity, elasticity and proliferation of smooth muscle cells, and biocompatibility and structural fidelity of biomaterials.