Recognising Diverse Forms of Parental Involvement in ESL Learning Across Socioeconomic Contexts

Parents play a significant role in children’s development and education. This paper examines parental involvement in children’s ESL learning in Malaysian public primary schools. Using semi-structured interviews with 12 parents (six low-income; six high-income) and thematic analysis, we identified seven themes: home learning environment, homework assistance, English communication, learning tools, ESL activities, support and encouragement, and home–school partnership. Both income groups were highly engaged, but strategies differed: Low-income families described resourceful, low-cost practices such as dedicated study spaces, readily available materials, vocabulary work, while high-income families reported tailoring activities to children’s interests, wider use of electronic devices and apps, and in some cases enrolment in private English classes. These patterns align with Bronfrenbenner’s ecological systems and Vygotsky’s social-constructivist perspectives that emphasise how environments and interactions shape support for learning. The findings suggest practical avenues for inclusive family-school collaboration and low-cost, home-based supports that recognise diverse family contexts.