Freezing rain as a forest disturbance agent: A global review of impacts, patterns, and research trends

Freezing rain is a high-impact winter weather phenomenon that acts as a major disturb-ance agent in forest ecosystems, causing canopy damage, stem breakage, tree mortality, and long-term changes in forest structure and functioning. Although ice storms have been studied for decades, research on freezing rain impacts on forests remains fragmented across multiple disciplines, and no comprehensive synthesis has previously integrated climatological, ecological, and methodological perspectives. In this study, we present a systematic and integrative review of the scientific literature on freezing rain and forests, combining a large-scale bibliometric analysis with an in-depth qualitative synthesis. A total of 241 publications retrieved from the Scopus and Web of Science databases were an-alyzed following PRISMA guidelines. The bibliometric assessment examined publication trends, geographic distribution, institutional contributions, research domains, and key-word networks. The qualitative review synthesized current knowledge on freezing-rain climatology, forest damage mechanisms, species-specific vulnerability, major ice-storm events, detection and modeling approaches, and ecological consequences. Results reveal a strong increase in scientific output over the last two decades, dominated by research from North America and northern Europe. Ice accretion intensity emerges as the primary driver of forest damage, while species traits, crown architecture, tree size, stand structure, topog-raphy, and exposure strongly modulate damage severity. Freezing rain affects a wide range of forest types worldwide and triggers both immediate structural damage and long-term ecological effects, including altered successional dynamics and reduced forest productivity. Recent methodological advances—including remote sensing, LiDAR, ex-perimental ice-storm simulations, reanalysis datasets, and machine-learning approach-es—have significantly improved detection, monitoring, and forecasting capabilities. De-spite these advances, major research gaps remain, particularly regarding long-term eco-system recovery, trait-based vulnerability, socio-economic impacts, and future freez-ing-rain regimes under climate change. This review highlights freezing rain as an in-creasingly important but underappreciated forest disturbance and underscores the need for interdisciplinary research and adaptive management strategies in ice-prone regions.