Interplay between Work-Related and Non-Work-Related Risk Factors of Cardiovascular Diseases: Implications for Workplace Prevention

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death worldwide and one of the four major non-communicable diseases identified by the World Health Organization (Global Burden of Disease Collaborative Network & IHME, 2024). In Europe, they claim nearly 4 million lives each year, including 1.71 million within Member States in 2021, and cost the EU an estimated €282 billion annually (Townsend et al., 2020; Luengo-Fernandez et al., 2023). Work-related circulatory diseases account for around 40,000 deaths annually, making them the second-largest contributor to occupational mortality (European Commission, 2021). Occupational exposures such as noise, vibration, chemical agents, physical strain, and psychosocial stressors often interact with lifestyle, genetic, and social determinants, amplifying cardiovascular risk among workers (Anfossi et al. 2021a; Hwang & Hong, 2012).