Distance education learning environments survey (DELES), revised two factor study process questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F), and students proactive decision-making scale (SPDMS-18)

Distance Education Learning Environments Survey (DELES) developed by Walker and Fraser (2005). The instrument comprises 34 items across six indicators: instructor support (8 items; α = 0.87), student interaction and collaboration (6 items; α = 0.94), personal relevance (7 items; α = 0.92), authentic learning (5 items; α = 0.89), active learning (3 items; α = 0.75), and student autonomy (5 items; α = 0.75). Revised Two Factor Study Process Questionnaire (R-SPQ-2F) developed by Biggs et al. (2001). This scale (R-SPQ-2F) includes 20 items. It has been tested on 724 students using four indicators with a Comparative fit Index value of >0.90, namely deep motive of 0.997, deep strategy of 0.998, surface motive of 0.988, and surface strategy of 0.998, thus indicating good construct validity. Students’ Proactive Decision-Making Scale (SPDMS-18) developed by Blegur et al. (2025). The instrument consists of 18 items across six indicators—systematic identification of objectives (α = 0.752), systematic identification of alternatives (α = 0.765), systematic search for information (α = 0.829), use of a decision radar (α = 0.750), taking initiative (α = 0.802), and striving for improvement (α = 0.835)—with three items representing each indicator.