Design, strategies, implementation effectiveness, challenges, and opportunities of multisectoral approaches to improve childhood vaccination in low- and middle-income countries: A scoping review

Despite global efforts, 14.3 million children remain zero-dose particulaily in low-and middle-income countries. Evidence suggests the last mile of immunization requires looking beyond the health sector, yet the evidence on multisectoral integration remains fragmented. This scoping review maps the global landscape of multisectoral approaches to childhood vaccination. We systematically examine how these interventions are designed, their implementation strategies, and their effectiveness. By identifying key barriers, enablers, and scalability factors, this review aims to provide a roadmap for achieving SDG-3 and Immunization Agenda 2030 targets through integrated, cross-sectoral action.