From Shame to Growth: A Network Analysis of PTSD, Rumination, and Self-Compassion in Bullying Victims

Bullying is a repeated, intentional form of peer-directed aggression, often involving an imbalance of power (Olweus, 1996). Victims commonly experience social isolation, lower academic performance, and school absenteeism (Juvonen et al., 2003; Olweus, 1993), and suffer long-term psychological consequences such as reduced self-esteem, impaired emotional regulation, and increased risk for depression, anxiety, and PTSD (Ferraz De Camargo & Rice, 2020; Palamarchuk & Vaillancourt, 2022). Trauma-related guilt and shame amplify symptom severity, with shame particularly predicting persistent distress in bullying victims (Øktedalen et al., 2014; Wu, 2024). Despite these challenges, Post-Traumatic Growth (PTG) can occur through deliberate cognitive processing of trauma, fostering improvements in personal strength, life appreciation, relationships, and meaning-making (Tedeschi & Calhoun, 2004; Ratcliff et al., 2022). Rumination plays a key role in recovery, with intrusive rumination maintaining distress, while deliberate rumination supports PTG (Cann et al., 2011; Tedeschi et al., 2018). Self-compassion—comprising self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness—serves as a protective factor, mitigating depression and promoting well-being, though bullying may undermine its development and contribute to chronic emotion dysregulation (Neff, 2003b; Tanaka et al., 2011; Doyle & Sullivan, 2017).