Adaptive recovery under motivation: Characterizing multimodal signatures of post-error effort adjustment in an incentivized cognitive control task

This study investigates how individuals actively respond to their own errors, with a focus on the dynamic interplay between motivation, cognitive control, and effort allocation. While post-error slowing (PES) and accuracy improvements have been widely interpreted as signs of automatic cognitive adjustment, we propose that these may also reflect a more deliberate, effortful process of recovery. We define this as effortful post-error recovery—a ramping up of cognitive effort following mistakes, captured through slower reaction times, increased pupil dilation (indicating heightened arousal or working memory engagement), and improved subsequent performance. By quantifying this ramp-up signature and examining how it is influenced by reward, this research aims to refine theoretical models of cognitive control and adaptive learning. Findings may inform strategies to enhance performance, support learning, and develop targeted interventions in educational and clinical contexts.