Dragon Fruit: Review of its Biological Activities, Cultivation Practices, Phytoconstituent Yields, Structural Insights, Nanoformulations, and Semi-synthetic Derivatives

Background: Dragon fruit (Hylocereus spp.), a tropical cactus fruit valued for its vibrant colours and nutritional profile, has garnered significant scientific interest. Beyond its use as a food source, it possesses potential applications in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and nanotechnology. Aim: This review aims to provide a comprehensive compilation of existing data regarding the biological activities, cultivation practices, phytoconstituent yields, structural insights, and emerging applications of dragon fruit, including nano-formulations and semi-synthetic derivatives. Methods: A comprehensive review of the literature was conducted, synthesising data from over 90 peer-reviewed studies. The analysis covers various Hylocereus species (H. undatus, H. polyrhizus, H. costaricensis) to compare chemical compositions, extraction technologies, and therapeutic potentials. Results: Comparative analysis indicates that red-fleshed varieties exhibit superior antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activities compared to white-fleshed counterparts, attributed to higher betacyanin and phenolic content. While cultivation is expanding in regions like India and Nepal, it faces challenges such as internal rot and specific climatic requirements. Regarding processing, Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction (UAE) is identified as a sustainable method that yields higher preservation of bioactive compounds compared to conventional acid hydrolysis. Furthermore, the fruit serves as a reducing agent in the green synthesis of gold and iron oxide nanoparticles, which demonstrate promising antimicrobial and anticancer properties. Conclusion: Dragon fruit represents a multifunctional resource where food science, pharmacology, and nanotechnology intersect. While in vitro studies confirm its therapeutic potential, further research is required to bridge the gap toward clinical applicability and to optimise sustainable industrial processing techniques. Major Findings: Red-fleshed varieties possess superior antioxidant and cytotoxic properties compared to white-fleshed counterparts due to higher betacyanin content. Additionally, ultrasound-assisted extraction proves significantly more effective than acid hydrolysis for bioactive preservation, supporting the fruit’s emerging role in green nanotechnology applications.