From Scarcity to Sustainability: Kuwait Adopts Full-Cycle Water Reuse

Global water security is a prerequisite for realizing the 2030 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [1].Its significant role in achieving SDG 6 "Clean Water and Sanitation" was also declared during the 28th United Nations Climate Change Conference in 2023 [2].Not only the development of adaptation strategies but also the implementation of decisive mitigation actions is vital for attaining water security [3] in different climate zones around the world [2].More than two billion people worldwide live in countries experiencing high water stress, reflecting the urgent need for integrated water management solutions to secure reliable water [4].In such arid regions facing water scarcity [5], the full-cycle water reuse approach-treating and reusing wastewater within a closed-loop system-significantly contributes to conserving freshwater, alleviating environmental impacts, and promoting sustainability [6].Kuwait, situated in the Middle East, is characterized by a hot, arid desert environment.With an internal renewable freshwater availability of only around 5 m 3 per capita per year, one of the lowest figures globally, Kuwait has virtually no natural water to exploit [7].The latest SDG 6.4.2 indicators showed that Kuwait has the highest level of water stress (~3850%) among 177 countries assessed [8].This level far exceeds the critical threshold (80%), leading the World Resources Institute to classify the country's water scarcity as 'extremely high' [8].Moreover, rapid population growth and the effects of global climate change exert additional pressure on Kuwait's limited natural freshwater resources, increasing national economic, environmental, and social sustainability risks [9].To address these challenges, Kuwait has long depended on the