Medicinal Plant-Derived Exosome-Like Nanoparticles: From Basic Research to Biomedical Applications

Plant-derived exosome-like nanoparticles (PELNs), a subset of extracellular vesicle (EV) secreted by plant cells, have emerged as revolutionary biomaterial with broad applications in biomedicine, agriculture, and nanotechnology. Structurally, PELNs feature with phospholipid bilayer homologous to plant cell membranes, encapsulating bioactive components such as proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and secondary metabolites. The native structure of PELNs endows them with enhanced bioavailability, reduced immunogenicity, and improved barrier penetration for precise tissue delivery. Recent researches highlight the cross-kingdom therapeutic potential of PELNs in mammals, including antitumor, anti-inflammatory, tissue repair, immunomodulation and so on. This review comprehensively summarized recent advancements in PELNs researches, including innovative isolation techniques, molecular characterization, their roles in drug delivery and disease therapy. We also discussed challenges in standardization, scalability, and regulatory frameworks which could provide future perspectives for translating PELNs into clinical and industrial applications.