Shaping Cities in a Headset: Exploring the Role of Virtual Reality Immersion and Interactivity in Civic Education

Abstract Virtual reality (VR) offers unique opportunities for immersive and interactive learning, yet its application in civic education – particularly in the context of sustainable urban transformations – remains underexplored. This study examines how immersive and interactive VR experiences influence students’ attitudes, knowledge, interest, and intention to participate in sustainable urban development. A 2×2 experimental design compared four conditions (immersive vs. non-immersive; interactive vs. non-interactive) among high school and vocational students in Switzerland (N = 162). Pre- and post-surveys, as well as a follow-up after eight weeks, measured changes across cognitive, affective, and motivational dimensions. The results show that immersive VR significantly improved attention, presence, satisfaction, and perceived usefulness compared to desktop conditions. Immersive experiences also yielded the strongest short-term improvements in attitudes toward sustainable urban development. Meanwhile, interactive elements significantly improved attention and boosted learners’ interest but had limited impact on knowledge or attitudes compared to non-interactive conditions. Knowledge increased across all groups, with the follow-up survey suggesting slightly higher retention in the interactive VR group; however, these differences were not statistically significant. These findings highlight the potential of combining immersive and interactive features to foster engagement and attitudinal change in civic education. At the same time, they underscore the need for repeated or scaffolded interventions to translate short-term learning into lasting motivation and participation. The study contributes to the instructional design of VR-based civic tools and advances understanding of how experiential media can support learning for sustainable development.