Socioeconomic and Gender Inequalities in Urban Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Access: Evidence from Dhaka, Bangladesh

Abstract Rapid urbanization in low- and middle-income countries has intensified inequities in access to safe water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), posing persistent public health and social justice challenges. Although Bangladesh has achieved notable national progress, substantial intra-urban disparities persist within Dhaka, particularly among socio-economically marginalized populations. This study examines the extent, determinants, and gendered dimensions of urban WASH inequality to inform equitable policy and infrastructure interventions. A two-stage stratified random household survey was conducted across the Dhaka City Corporation, yielding a weighted sample of 1,000 households. Key WASH indicators, including drinking water sources, water availability on premises, treatment practices, sanitation facilities, sharing behavior, and child feces management, were analyzed against socio-economic and gender variables. Analytical methods included chi-square tests, multivariate logistic regression, and machine-learning-based relationship matrices validated using SHAP sensitivity analysis. Results reveal stark disparities between privileged and underprivileged households. Improved drinking water access was reported by 98.1% of privileged households compared to 82.8% of underprivileged households, while improved sanitation coverage was universal among privileged groups but limited to 68.8% among underprivileged ones. Only 9.4% of underprivileged households treated drinking water, compared to 75% of privileged households. Water collection burdens were highly gendered, with 32.8% of female children and 26.6% of male children in underprivileged households responsible for fetching water, often exceeding 30 minutes per trip. Underprivileged households were also disproportionately dependent on shared sanitation facilities (93.8%) and unsafe child feces disposal practices (87.4%). All major WASH indicators were significantly associated with socio-economic status (p < 0.001), demonstrating that economic disadvantage systematically amplifies health, gender, and infrastructural vulnerabilities. These findings provide actionable evidence for policymakers, urban planners, water utilities, public health agencies, and development partners working to advance SDG 6 and reduce urban inequality.