Water sensitivity assessment framework for an Indian secondary riverine city: a case study of Paonta Sahib

ABSTRACT Water sensitivity is progressively recognised as a critical pathway for achieving sustainable and resilient urban water management, particularly in riverine cities where ecological integrity, infrastructure performance and governance effectiveness are tightly interconnected. While the Water-Sensitive Cities Index (WSCI) has been widely applied in metropolitan contexts, its application to smaller and secondary riverine cities remains limited, particularly in developing countries such as India. This study develops and applies a context-specific water sensitivity assessment framework for Paonta Sahib, a secondary riverine city located along the Yamuna River. The framework adapts the WSCI through indicator customisation and integrates quantitative indices with qualitative, stakeholder-driven assessments across four dimensions: society, environment, technology, and governance, represented by 22 indicators. Results indicate an overall WSCI score of 0.41, placing Paonta Sahib in a neutral (moderately sensitive) transition stage. Society (0.58) and technology (0.54) demonstrate relatively stronger performance, while governance (0.37) and environment (0.29) reveal critical deficits. The analysis identifies key opportunities for advancing water sensitivity through nature-based solutions, wastewater reuse, groundwater recharge, circular economy practices and strengthened participatory governance. Finally, this study provides a replicable assessment approach that supports both scholarly evaluation and actionable urban water management strategies in similar contexts.