One health-based strategies to ensure the microbiological safety of milk

Milk from different animal species provides substantial nutritional benefits but may also act as a vehicle for the transmission of pathogenic microorganisms, particularly when adequate hygienic practices are not followed. Contamination may arise from intrinsic factors, such as mastitis, or extrinsic factors, including improper handling and storage conditions. Several foodborne illnesses are associated with classical pathogens, including Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, and Staphylococcus aureus, which can cause clinical outcomes ranging from food poisoning to severe diseases such as septicemia and meningitis. In addition, non-classical or emerging pathogens, such as Acinetobacter spp. and Brucella spp., represent increasing public health concerns. The One Health concept advocates an integrated approach involving human, animal, and environmental health to prevent and control these diseases. Measures such as effective pasteurization, animal health monitoring, and the adoption of good agricultural and manufacturing practices are essential to reduce microbiological risks associated with milk consumption. Public awareness initiatives and robust regulatory policies are also critical to ensuring milk safety.