A comprehensive review on cardiovascular biomarkers in animals: Bridging conventional diagnostics and precision medicine

Heart diseases are a major cause of reduced performance, illness, and death in domestic and companion animals. The early recognition of cardiac disorders is often difficult because clinical signs may be subtle and advanced diagnostic imaging is not always available. Biomarkers have emerged as practical tools for identifying myocardial injury, ventricular stress, inflammatory activity, and metabolic disturbances using minimally invasive blood sampling. This review integrates current knowledge on cardiovascular biomarkers used in veterinary medicine, focusing on cardiac troponins, natriuretic peptides, and novel molecular markers. Their diagnostic value in equine and small animal cardiology is discussed, along with challenges related to biological variation, assay limitations, and reference interval standardization. Future directions emphasize multi-marker strategies, omics-based discovery, and precision approaches for veterinary cardiac care.