Spatial distribution of indirect effects of human-elephant interactions around Mikumi National Park, Tanzania

\articletype Original Articles The human-elephant interface challenges have been the global wildlife conservation topic, because of negative consequences to local communities lying mainly on crop loss, human injuries and deaths, and livestock deaths which makes direct effects from elephants. Research on human-elephant conflicts has focused on the direct effects of elephants on humans neglecting their indirect effects. Studies on human-elephant interactions around Mikumi National Park (MNP) have scant information on indirect effects of human-elephant interactions which are psycho-social usually occurring unnoticed, unreported, and uncompensated due to lack of tangible evidence. This paper uses data which were collected from 405 households during the dry and wet seasons of 2023. Primary data were collected using Likert scale from 1-extremely low to 5-extremely high, asking respondents to assess the extent of indirect effects experienced by their households due to the presence of elephants, while recording the GPS locations for recorded indirect effects. Descriptive and spatial analyses were conducted to produce visualizations, tables, and heatmaps illustrating the patterns and extent of these effects. The results show that the most reported indirect effects were compromised safety, food insecurity, and restricted movement, while the least reported effects included time lost by parents escorting children to and from school. Spatial autocorrelation analyses indicate that these indirect effects are localized rather than widespread, highlighting hotspots of vulnerability. This study reveals a complex web of socio-economic challenges arising from the indirect effects of elephants, which significantly affect community well-being. These findings underscore the need for inclusive mitigation strategies that extend beyond direct impacts to address indirect effects and promote harmonious human–elephant coexistence. Potential interventions could include but not limited to the provision of adequate hostels for pupils in areas prone to elephant activity and improved access to psychological and medical services for affected households.