How socio-economic conditions shape empowerment of indigenous women in El Alto’s tourism sector

This article examines the role of socio-economic conditions in shaping empowerment, based on an ethnographic study conducted in 2022–2023 with three groups of indigenous women working in the tourism sector in El Alto, Bolivia: Cholitas Escaladoras, Cholitas Luchadoras, and female guides. The study shows that socio-economic structures contribute to both empowerment and disempowerment. In the context of El Alto, social capital, including family networks and associations, and labour relations emerge as key factors. Horizontal labour relations, which foster collaboration and shared decision-making, are associated with greater economic, social, and political empowerment, while vertical structures tend to limit agency and create dependency. These findings underscore the importance of considering contextual socio-economic conditions when analysing empowerment, offering a holistic understanding of how it manifests across different groups.