Bio-Inspired Cell-Membrane Camouflaged Nanocarriers: Bridging the Gap Between Synthetic Delivery Systems and Biological Complexity

Despite substantial advancements in nanomedicine, the clinical translation of synthetic drug delivery systems remains severely hindered by biological barriers, including rapid immune clearance, off-target toxicity, and limited targeting efficacy. To bridge the gap between synthetic pharmacokinetics and biological complexity, cellmembrane camouflaged nanocarriers have emerged as a transformative biomimetic platform. By encloaking synthetic nanoparticle cores with intact natural cell membranes derived from erythrocytes, platelets, leukocytes, cancer cells, or engineered hybrids this top-down nanotechnology endows delivery vehicles with unparalleled, naturally evolved functionalities. This comprehensive review critically examines the latest fabrication and characterization methodologies of these bio-inspired platforms, highlighting how specific membrane sources dictate their unique physiological behaviors, such as CD47-mediated immune evasion and multi-receptor homotypic targeting. We systematically explore their multifunctional capabilities within complex biological environments, emphasizing active targeting, stimuli-responsive drug release, and theranostic integration. Furthermore, we evaluate the profound therapeutic potential of membrane-camouflaged nanocarriers across diverse clinical domains, including precision oncology, immunotherapy, infectious disease neutralization, and cardiovascular interventions. Finally, we provide a critical perspective on current translational bottlenecks manufacturing scale-up, long-term preservation, and regulatory complexities and discuss the future trajectory of the field, driven by artificial intelligence and synthetic biology, toward realizing next-generation, personalized nanomedicines.