A critical review of phenolic compounds in the environment in saline waters: Fate, impacts, and sustainable solutions

Phenol and its derivatives are persistent organic pollutants of significant environmental concern due to their widespread occurrence, toxic effects, and resistance to natural degradation. While numerous studies have explored the removal of phenols from water using various adsorbents, less attention has been given to the unique challenges and underlying mechanisms that influence their adsorption in saline environments, particularly within marine systems. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the environmental occurrence, fate, and transport of phenolic pollutants in marine and aquatic settings, with a specific focus on their interactions with sediments and the influence of salinity on adsorption efficiency. Additionally, this work presents data on the physicochemical properties of natural marine sediments, the effects of ionic strength on the sorption and adsorption of phenolic pollutants, and recent advancements in adsorbent materials that can function under saline conditions. It also emphasizes the molecular interactions underlying adsorption processes, supported by theoretical studies. This review presents a new framework for understanding and enhancing phenol removal in saline waters and suggests future research directions for developing effective, resilient adsorbents.