Fight, flight, or freeze: an exploration of police firearms officers in situations of risk and confrontation.

The level of stress in an armed confrontation is profound, and incidents involving the discharge of firearms, though rare, provoke significant public concern in the UK. The physiological and psychological challenges faced by Armed Firearms Officers (AFOs) in these scenarios are seldom discussed yet have substantial implications for operational performance. This thesis investigates arousal levels in AFOs within their training environments to enhance understanding and inform practice. Given that British AFOs are volunteers from a predominantly unarmed service the lack of research in this area underscores the importance of this study.Two experimental studies were undertaken. The first, during a bi-annual qualification shoot with 128 AFOs, revealed that less experienced officers exhibited significantly higher heart rates and reduced accuracy. Experienced AFOs maintained accuracy despite elevated arousal, indicating that inexperience exacerbates arousal's negative effects. These findings directly informed adjustments to national qualification processes, which subsequent analysis showed significantly reduced failure rates.The second study, a tactical simulation with 69 officers, found that less experienced personnel were less proficient tactically and in first-shot accuracy, with higher heart rates suggesting greater physiological arousal. Crucially, psychological arousal, measured by situational awareness, was consistently poor across all experience levels, though recall for decision-making remained robust.This research highlights that while experience mitigates some effects of physiological arousal, psychological factors like situational awareness require dedicated focus. Furthermore, those with less experience are more susceptible to the deleterious effects of arousal. Consequently, it is recommended that training programmes integrate structured support processes involving those with significant experience supporting those with the least experience. Training should also consider more detailed immersive scenarios alongside stress exposure to inoculate less experienced officers and explicitly target the development of situational awareness skills. Implementing such evidence-based strategies is vital for enhancing AFO preparedness and ensuring public safety.