Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Comprehensive Review

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a prevalent neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that impair academic, social, and occupational functioning. Affecting an estimated 5%–7% of children and 2%–4% of adults worldwide, ADHD often persists throughout the lifespan and presents diverse clinical challenges. Neurobiological evidence implicates structural and functional abnormalities in the prefrontal, striatal, and cerebellar regions, along with dysregulation of dopaminergic and noradrenergic pathways. These alterations contribute to deficits in executive function and behavioral control. Diagnosis is based on criteria outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, and requires comprehensive clinical evaluation across multiple settings. Treatment typically involves pharmacologic agents—stimulants and/or non-stimulants—in combination with behavioral interventions. Digital therapeutics, cognitive training, and other emerging modalities offer additional options, particularly for complex or treatment-resistant cases. High rates of comorbid conditions, including mood, anxiety, and learning disorders, further complicate management and necessitate individualized care strategies. This review provides an integrative overview of ADHD, including its epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnostic process, and treatment approaches, with special emphasis on comorbidity profiles, emerging therapeutic modalities, and future directions aimed at optimizing long-term outcomes.