Bone tissue formation in fetuses and newborns, and the prolongation of intra- and postnatal disorders in osteopenia and osteoporosis (physiology and pathophysiology)

The health of the child in general and the full development of its skeletal system in particular begin with the health and nutrition of the mother, which affect the mass and density of bones in the fetus. The formation of the skeletal system of the fetus, including its mineralization, is determined by genetic influence, epigenetics, oxidative stress, the endocrine system, and adequate protein-mineral and vitamin supply. A pregnant woman who is not provided with vitamins and minerals is not able to transfer them in quantities sufficient for the full development of the skeleton in the fetus. The most intensive formation of the skeletal system occurs in the third trimester of pregnancy, and in case of premature birth, it is extremely problematic to compensate for these disorders in the next 2 years of life. The most vulnerable groups are children from complicated pregnancies, premature babies, low birth weight babies, children of mothers with chronic diseases, and those who themselves suffer from infectious and somatic diseases. The subsequent growth and development of the skeleton is affected by the timely provision of protein, vitamins and minerals