Advanced Sensors and Techniques for Groundwater Quality Monitoring: An Integrative Overview

Groundwater represents a critical freshwater resource that supports domestic, agricultural, and industrial demands worldwide.With increasing population pressure, urbanization, and intensified land-use practices, the quality of groundwater is under growing stress.Conventional groundwater quality monitoring methods, although reliable, are often laborious, time-consuming, and spatially limited.In recent decades, rapid advancements in sensor technologies, data acquisition systems, and analytical techniques have transformed groundwater quality assessment by enabling real-time, continuous, and high-resolution monitoring.This review provides an integrative overview of the evolution of groundwater quality monitoring techniques, from traditional sampling-based approaches to modern sensor-driven and data-enabled systems.Emphasis is placed on commonly monitored physicochemical parameters, the role of advanced sensors, and emerging monitoring strategies.The review highlights how modern sensing technologies improve efficiency, accuracy, and early warning capabilities in groundwater quality management.