Time Matters: Rethinking Temporal Dynamics in Criminology

Time is a foundational yet underspecified concept in criminological theory and research. While developmental and life course criminology is explicitly concerned with temporal processes, including the onset, duration, and desistance of criminal behaviour, the precise specification of time in theory and empirical research remains largely implicit. This paper critically examines how time is conceptualized and modelled in criminology, with particular attention to the gap between the temporal assumptions embedded in theory and the designs and methods used to test them. We argue that this underspecification has important consequences for both scientific understanding and practical application, including the design and evaluation of interventions where questions of dosage, timing, and the duration of effects are central. We demonstrate that theoretical and empirical decisions about temporal processes are often driven by convenience or convention rather than explicit reasoning, and that commonly held assumptions about the stability of key constructs over time rest on an insufficient empirical foundation. To address these limitations, we make a case for more formally specifying causal temporal assumptions, integrating measures across micro- and macro-time scales, and adopting research designs, such as ambulatory assessment, experience sampling, and burst designs, capable of capturing how short-term experiences translate into longer-term behavioural change. Greater transparency about temporal assumptions and their empirical basis will strengthen causal inference and improve the design and evaluation of criminological interventions.