Comparative extraction efficiency of solvent systems for phytochemicals from Moringa oleifera, Madhuca indica, and Ficus nemoloris

Background: In tropical and subtropical regions, trees and shrubs play a vital role in animal feeding systems by providing dependable nutritional resources. The health and productivity enhancing effects of plant-based feeds are largely attributed to phytochemicals, bioactive secondary metabolites with therapeutic and prophylactic properties. However, the effectiveness of these compounds is strongly influenced by the plant matrix and extraction conditions, including solvent type and method. Tree species such as Moringa oleifera, Madhuca indica, and Ficus nemoloris are rich sources of nutrients and bioactive compounds that improve rumen function, nutrient utilization, and milk production in cattle. Given their availability and importance in ruminant nutrition, systematic evaluation of their phytochemical profiles is essential. Objective: This study investigated the effectiveness of different solvents in extracting bioactive compounds from these plant species and assessed their qualitative and quantitative phytochemical composition. Material and Methods: Leaves of Moringa oleifera and Ficus nemoloris and flowers of Madhuca indica were collected, taxonomically authenticated, and processed under laboratory conditions. Plant materials were washed, shade-dried, powdered, and extracted using aqueous, ethanolic (70% ethanol), organic (TBME:hexane, 1:1), and acetonitrile solvents via maceration or Soxhlet extraction. Extracts were filtered, concentrated, dried, and stored at −20 °C, and extraction yield was calculated on a dry weight basis. Qualitative phytochemical screening was performed using standard colorimetric assays, while total flavonoid, phenolic, and tannin contents were quantified using established methods. Experiments were conducted in triplicate, and data were analyzed by one-way ANOVA (P ≤ 0.05). Results: Qualitative phytochemical screening revealed marked variation in the distribution of bioactive constituents among the three plant species and solvent systems, highlighting the critical role of solvent polarity in extraction efficiency. Flavonoids were consistently present in aqueous and ethanolic extracts but absent in TBME:hexane extracts, confirming their polar nature. Terpenoids showed greater affinity for non-polar solvents, while cardiac glycosides were selectively extracted using aqueous and alcoholic solvents. Anthraquinones were not detected under the experimental conditions. Saponins were absent in TBME:hexane extracts but present in polar and semi-polar solvent systems. Alkaloids, phenols, tannins, and steroids exhibited clear solvent-dependent extractability, with ethanolic extracts generally showing stronger qualitative responses, indicating superior recovery. Quantitative analysis corroborated these findings, demonstrating significant differences in total flavonoid, phenolic, and tannin contents among solvents and plant species. Ethanolic extracts yielded the highest total flavonoid and phenolic contents, particularly in Moringa oleifera (101.93 mg QE/g and 97.98 mg GAE/g, respectively), while TBME:hexane extracts showed the lowest flavonoid levels. Total tannin content varied with plant matrix and solvent; Madhuca indica recorded the highest tannins in aqueous extracts (64.60 mg TAE/g), whereas Ficus nemoloris showed maximum tannins in alcoholic extracts (39.06 mg TAE/g). Although TBME:hexane was least effective for flavonoids, it selectively yielded high tannin levels, especially in Moringa oleifera (76.50 mg TAE/g). Conclusion: Phytochemical extraction was strongly influenced by solvent polarity and plant matrix. Polar solvents, especially ethanol, yielded superior recovery of flavonoids and phenolics, notably in Moringa oleifera, while non-polar TBME:hexane selectively enhanced tannin extraction, demonstrating solvent-specific selectivity.