The relationship between flexible work arrangements and employee engagement across countries’ levels of development: A systematic mini-review and meta-analysis

Employee engagement is influenced by multiple individual and organizational factors. This study examines the relationship between flexible working arrangements (FWAs) and employee engagement (EE) across countries with different levels of development through a systematic mini-review and meta-analysis. Given that flexible working arrangements are embedded in distinct institutional, economic, and organizational contexts, and that labor market regulations, technological infrastructure, and managerial practices vary substantially across countries, this study conceptualizes countries’ levels of development as a key contextual factor shaping the strength of the FWA–EE relationship. The review followed the PRISMA framework, and data were analyzed using the PICOS model. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were established and applied by the researchers, with the screening process presented in the PRISMA flow diagram. Meta-analytic computations were conducted using the Comprehensive Meta-Analysis (CMA) 3.0 software. A total of 10 studies from 9 countries, involving 2,970 participants, met the inclusion criteria. Using a random-effects model, a large and statistically significant positive relationship was found between flexible working arrangements (FWA) and employee engagement (EE) in developing countries (effect size = 0.509; r = 0.469). Additionally, the sector variable was analyzed as a subgroup in the relationship between flexible working arrangements and employee engagement. The service sector (r=0.60, and p