Virtual geological field trips in geoscience education: A systematic review of technological landscapes, educational outcomes, and implementation challenges

Virtual Geological Field Trips (VGFTs) have emerged as transformative tools to address critical challenges of accessibility, sustainability, and inclusivity in geoscience education. This systematic literature review synthesizes evidence on the implementation, educational outcomes, and challenges of VGFTs to provide an evidence-based framework for educators, researchers, and policymakers. Following the PRISMA 2020 protocol, we conducted a systematic review of 48 peer-reviewed studies published between 2010 and 2024. Searches were performed across six databases (Scopus, Web of Science, GeoRef, IEEE Xplore, ACM Digital Library, and ERIC). Study quality was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT), and data were synthesized thematically. Our analysis reveals a diverse technological ecosystem: web-based platforms dominate (46% of studies) due to high accessibility, while immersive VR (21%) offers superior engagement for complex spatial tasks, and 360° video provides an accessible midpoint. Pedagogically, VGFTs are most effective when grounded in constructivist and inquiry-based learning principles. The evidence indicates significant cognitive gains, with 83% of studies reporting improved conceptual understanding and spatial reasoning. Strong affective outcomes were documented in 79% of studies, particularly for learners facing barriers to traditional fieldwork, including students with disabilities and those from under-resourced institutions. However, substantial challenges persist: technical barriers (38%), pedagogical integration difficulties (29%), and a critical unresolved gap in transferring virtually-acquired psychomotor skills to real-world field settings. The review concludes that VGFTs operate best under a complementarity principle, excelling as preparatory, revision, and accessibility tools within a blended learning model that preserves the irreplaceable social and multisensory experience of physical fieldwork. This study provides an evidence-based framework to guide strategic integration, identifying priorities for educators, researchers, and policymakers in the continued development and implementation of VGFTs.