Assisted reproductive technologies in camel reproduction: A comprehensive review

Camels are uniquely adapted livestock species that play a vital role in the economy and survival of human populations inhabiting arid and semi-arid regions. Despite their importance, reproductive efficiency in camels remains relatively low due to distinctive anatomical and physiological characteristics such as seasonal breeding, induced ovulation, viscous semen, and prolonged copulation time. Assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) provide effective tools to overcome these limitations and enhance genetic improvement, reproductive performance, and conservation of valuable camel germplasm. This review presents a detailed and comprehensive account of camel reproductive anatomy and physiology, followed by an in-depth discussion of major assisted reproductive technologies, including artificial insemination, semen collection and preservation, embryo transfer, cryopreservation, in vitro fertilisation, and intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Emphasis is placed on practical techniques, hormonal protocols, challenges encountered, and recent scientific advancements. The review aims to serve as a consolidated reference for students, researchers, and field veterinarians working in camel reproduction.