Applications of nanoparticles in plant genetic transformation and crop improvement

Nanotechnology has emerged as a powerful and innovative tool in plant genetic engineering by enabling precise manipulation and delivery of biomolecules at the nanoscale. Nanoparticles exhibit unique physicochemical properties, such as a high surface area-to-volume ratio and size-dependent optical, chemical, and biological characteristics, which make them highly suitable for gene delivery applications. The integration of nanotechnology with biological systems, termed nanobiotechnology, has gained significant attention for enhancing the efficiency and versatility of plant transformation strategies. This review highlights the role of nanoparticle-based gene delivery systems, including metal, metal oxide, clay, lipid-based, polymeric, and dendrimer nanoparticles, in plant biotechnology. These nanomaterials can effectively bind, protect, and transport nucleic acids, facilitate cellular uptake, and overcome key physiological barriers such as the rigid plant cell wall. Recent advances demonstrate successful nanoparticle-mediated gene transfer in plants using gold, silica, calcium phosphate, carbon-based, magnetic, and silver nanoparticles. Compared to conventional transformation methods, nanoparticle-assisted approaches offer higher transformation efficiency, reduced tissue damage, genotype-independent delivery, and cost-effective alternatives. Collectively, nanoparticle-enabled genetic engineering represents a promising strategy for accelerating crop improvement programs. By facilitating the precise introduction of stress-resilience, disease-resistance, and yield-related genes, nanotechnology holds substantial potential for developing climate-resilient crops capable of withstanding biotic and abiotic stresses, thereby contributing to sustainable agriculture and global food security.