Prolegomenon The Middle Period: 677–729/1278–1329

This period of Ilkhanid-Kartid control at Herat began inauspiciously. It ended with the Ilkhanate nearing dissolution; the Kartid state politically and financially ascendant; and the economy of Herat flourishing. Political, social, and economic conditions in Khurasan (generally), and in Herat (specifically), were impacted by events beyond Kartid control: Jochid-Toluid, Chaghataid-Toluid, Chaghataid-Ögödeid, and Chaghataid-Jochid hostilities on Persia’s frontiers. The Ilkhanid center (Tabriz) and the Mongol imperial center (Qaraqorum) were not focused on Herat. The Chaghataid-Ögödeid alliance under Qaidu challenged Qubilai Qaʾan in Mongolia and Uighuristan in 1268, 1275, 1286, and 1290.1 The Ilkhanate was pressured by the Golden Horde in the northwest in 1288 and 1290.2 The Golden Horde, under the leadership of Berke Khan (r. 1257–66), had allied with the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt and Syria (r. 1250–1517). Mamluks and Ilkhanids battled in the west, from 1260,3 until a peace accord was instituted in 1323. Shaken loose in the Ilkhanid-Jochid, Ilkhanid-Ögödeid, and Ilkhanid-Chaghataid struggles were consortia that became principal actors in Khurasan: (1) Jawni-Qurban, (2) Nikudaris, (3) Qaraunas.