Challenges and opportunities of goat breeding practices in low- and middle-income countries

Goats are among the most valuable livestock species in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), contributing significantly to food security, nutrition, and household income. Their adaptability to harsh environments and ability to thrive on limited resources make them critical to the livelihoods of smallholder farmers. However, genetic improvement and productivity gains in goat populations across LMICs have remained limited due to intertwined genetic, environmental, institutional, and socio-economic challenges. This review synthesizes the existing evidence on goat breeding practices, identifies major constraints to genetic improvement, and highlights emerging opportunities for sustainable breeding interventions. It draws from field-based case studies to present an integrated analysis of breeding systems, strategies, and innovations across Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Traditional breeding practices in LMICs are predominantly based on visual appraisal and uncontrolled mating, which, while preserving adaptive traits, result in slow genetic progress, inbreeding, and low productivity. Crossbreeding initiatives have aimed to combine local adaptability with improved performance from exotic breeds, but outcomes have been inconsistent due to poor adaptability of exotic genotypes, weak planning, and limited farmer participation. Community-based breeding programs (CBBPs) have emerged as a promising alternative, demonstrating measurable genetic gains, improved farmer ownership, and conservation of indigenous genetic resources when supported by institutional frameworks and data recording systems. Although advanced tools such as marker-assisted and genomic selection offer high accuracy, their adoption in LMICs is constrained by cost, infrastructure, and technical capacity. The review concludes that sustainable goat breeding in LMICs requires an integrated and context-specific approach that combines phenotypic selection, community-based breeding, and low-cost genomic tools within supportive policy, institutional, and gender-inclusive frameworks. Strengthening local capacity, enhancing digital data systems, and fostering regional cooperation are essential to accelerate genetic progress while safeguarding the adaptive traits vital for climate resilience and livelihood security in smallholder goat production systems.